Homology theory

In mathematics, homology theory is the Axiomatic study of the intuitive geometric idea of homology of cycles on topological spaces. It can be broadly defined as the study of Homology (mathematics) theories on topological spaces.

At the intuitive level homology is taken to be an equivalence relation, such that chains C and D are homologous on the space X if the chain C − D is a boundary of a chain of one dimension higher. The simplest case is in graph theory, with C and D vertices and homology with a meaning coming from the oriented edge E from P to Q having boundary Q — P . A collection of edges from D to C , each one joining up to the one before, is a homology. In general, a k -chain is thought of as a formal combination

:Sigma a_i d_i

where the a_i are integers and the b_i are k -dimensional simplices on X . The boundary concept here is that taken over from the boundary of a simplex; it allows a high-dimensional concept which for k = 1 is the kind of telescopic cancellation seen in the graph theory case. This explanation is in the style of 1900, and proved somewhat naive, technically speaking.

=Example of a torus surface=

For example if X is a 2-torus T , a one-dimensional cycle on T is in intuitive terms a linear combination of curves drawn on T , which closes up on itself (cycle condition, equivalent to having no net boundary). If C and D are cycles each wrapping once round T in the same way, we can find explicitly an oriented area on T with boundary C − D . Topologists can prove that the homology classes of 1-cycles with integer coefficients form a free abelian group with two generators, one generator for each of the two different ways round the doughnut .

=The nineteenth century=

This level of understanding was common property in the mathematics of the nineteenth century, starting with the idea of Riemann surface. At the end of the century, the work of Henri Poincaré had provided a much more general, though still intuitively-based, setting.

For example, it is considered that the general s, with respect to integration.

=Twentieth century beginnings=

Rather loose, geometric arguments with homology were only gradually replaced at the beginning of the twentieth century by rigorous techniques. To begin with, the style of the era was to use combinatorial topology (the fore-runner of today s algebraic topology). That assumes that the spaces treated are simplicial complexes, while the most interesting spaces are usually manifolds, so that artificial triangulations have to be introduced to apply the tools. Pioneers such as Solomon Lefschetz and Marston Morse still preferred a geometric approach. The combinatorial stance did allow Brouwer to prove foundational results such as the simplicial approximation theorem, at the base of the idea that homology is a functor (as it would later be put). Brouwer was able to prove the Jordan curve theorem, basic for complex analysis, and the invariance of domain, using the new tools; and remove the suspicion attaching to topological arguments as handwaving.

=Towards algebraic topology=

The transition to algebraic topology is usually attributed to the influence of s that enter into a general formulation.

=Cohomology, and singular homology=

The 1930s were the decade of the development of cohomology theory, as several research directions grew together and the De Rham cohomology that was implicit in Poincaré s work cited earlier became the subject of definite theorems. Cohomology and homology are dual theories, in a sense that required detailed working out; at the same time it was realised that homology, that was, homology (mathematics), was far from being at the end of its story. The definition of singular homology avoided the need for the apparatus of triangulations, at a cost of moving to infinitely-generated modules.

=Axiomatics and extraordinary theories=

The development of algebraic topology from 1940 to 1960 was very rapid, and the role of homology theory was often as baseline theory, easy to compute and in terms of which topologists sought to calculate with other functors. The axiomatisation of homology theory by Eilenberg and Steenrod revealed that what various candidate homology theories had in common was, roughly speaking, some exact sequences and in particular the Mayer-Vietoris theorem, and the dimension axiom that calculated the homology of the point. The dimension axiom was relaxed to admit the (co)homology derived from topological K-theory, and cobordism theory, in a vast extension to the extraordinary (co)homology theories that became standard in homotopy theory. These can be easily characterised for the category of CW complexes.

=Current state of homology theory=

For more general (i.e. worse-behaved) spaces, recourse to ideas from sheaf theory brought some extension of homology theories, particularly the Borel-Moore theory for locally compact spaces.

The basic chain complex apparatus of homology theory has long since become a separate piece of technique in homological algebra, and has been applied independently, for example to group cohomology. Therefore there is no longer one homology theory, but many homology and cohomology theories in mathematics.