Ocaml |
: Do not confuse it with the Occam programming language.
__NOTOC__ Objective Caml (OCaml) is a general-purpose programming language descended from the ML programming language family, created by Xavier Leroy, Jerome Vouillon, Damien Doligez, Didier Rémy and others in 1996. OCaml is an open source project managed and principally maintained by Institut National de Recherche en Informatique et en Automatique.
OCaml shares the functional programming and imperative programming features of ML, but adds object-oriented programming constructs and has minor syntax differences. It has a large standard library that makes it useful for many of the same applications as Python programming language or Perl, as well as robust modular and object -oriented programming constructs that make it applicable for large-scale software engineering.
OCaml is a successor to CAML. The acronym CAML originally stood for Categorical Abstract Machine Language , although OCaml abandons Categorical_Abstract_Machine_Language.
=Philosophy=
ML-derived languages are most well known for their strict type systems and type inference compilers. OCaml unifies functional, imperative, and object-oriented programming under an ML-like type system.
Like Python and Perl, OCaml provides an interactive toplevel and a script interpreter, but it also provides bytecode and optimizing native code compilers. Many high-level programming languages, even when compiled to native code, achieve slower performance than might be possible with C programming language because of runtime type and safety checks. OCaml s strict type system renders runtime type mismatches impossible, and thus obviates the need for this overhead, while still guaranteeing runtime safety. Code generated by OCaml s native code compiler can achieve speeds comparable to C programming language on algorithmic tasks [http://shootout.alioth.debian.org/].
In addition to reducing overhead, OCaml s strict type system eliminates a large class of programmer errors that may cause problems at runtime. However, it also forces the programmer to conform to the constraints of the type system, which can require careful thought and close attention. Like all ML-derived languages, the OCaml compiler can infer types, greatly reducing the need for manual type annotation (for example, the datatype of variables and the signature of functions usually do not need to be expressly declared, as they do in Java programming language). Nonetheless, effective use of OCaml s type system can require some sophistication on the part of the programmer.
=Features=
OCaml features: a semantic analysis type system, type inference, polymorphism (computer science), tail recursion, pattern matching, Closure_(computer_science), function object, exception handling, and incremental generational garbage collection (computer science).
OCaml is particularly notable for extending ML-style type inference to an object system in a general purpose language. This permits structural subtyping, where object types are compatible if their method signatures are compatible, regardless of their declared inheritance; an unusual feature in statically-typed languages.
A foreign function interface for easy linking with C programming language primitives is provided, including language support for efficient numerical arrays in formats compatible with both C and Fortran.
OCaml distribution components:
The compiler is available for many platforms, including .
=Applications=
OCaml is a general-purpose programming language, but some of its more popular applications include:
==Computer science==
==Natural science==
OCaml is also widely used in physics, chemistry, biology and, more recently, bioinformatics:
==Education==
Ocaml is used as an introductory language in many universities, including:
=Code examples=
Snippets of OCaml code are most easily studied by entering them into the top-level . This is an interactive OCaml session that prints the inferred types of resulting or defined expressions. The OCaml top-level is started by simply executing the ocaml program:
$ ocaml Objective Caml version 3.08.0 #
Code can then be entered at the # prompt. For example, to calculate 1+2*3:
# 1 + 2 * 3;; - : int = 7
OCaml infers the type of the expression to be int (a machine-precision integer) and gives the result 7 .
==Hello World==
The following program hello.ml :
print_endline Hello world! ;;
can be compiled to bytecode:
$ ocamlc hello.ml -o hello
and executed:
$ ./hello Hello world! $
==Birthday paradox==
OCaml may be used as a scripting language, as the following script calculates the number of people in a room before the probability of two sharing the same birthday becomes larger than 50% (the so-called birthday paradox).
On a Unix-like machine, save it to a file, Chmod to executable (chmod 0755 birthday.ml) and run it from the command line (./birthday.ml).
#!/usr/bin/ocamlrun ocaml let size = 365. ;; let rec loop p i = let p = (size -. (float (i-1))) *. p /. size in if p < 0.5 then Printf.printf answer = %d i else loop p (i+1) ;; loop 1.0 2
==Factorial function (recursion and purely functional programming)==
Many mathematical functions, such as factorial, are most naturally represented in a purely functional form. The following recursive, purely-functional OCaml function implements factorial:
# let rec fact n = if n=0 then 1 else n * fact(n-1);; val fact : int -> int =
The function can be written equivalently using pattern matching:
# let rec fact = function | 0 -> 1 | n -> n * fact(n-1);;
This latter form is the mathematical definition of factorial as a recurrence relation.
Note that the compiler inferred the type of this function to be int -> int , meaning that this function maps ints onto ints. For example, 12! is:
# fact 12;; - : int = 479001600
==Arbitrary-precision factorial function (libraries)==
A wide variety of libraries are directly accessible from OCaml. For example, OCaml has a built-in library for arbitrary precision arithmetic. As the factorial function grows very rapidly, it quickly overflows machine-precision numbers (typically 32- or 64-bits). Thus, factorial is a suitable candidate for arbitrary-precision arithmetic.
In OCaml, the Num module provides arbitrary-precision arithmetic and can be loaded into a running top-level using:
# #load nums.cma ;; # open Num;;
We begin by defining aliases for zero and one in this arithmetic:
# let zero = num_of_int 0 and one = num_of_int 1;; val zero : Num.num = Int 0 val one : Num.num = Int 1
The factorial function may then be written using the operators =/, */ and -/ that are the equivalent of =, * and - for arbitrary-precision numbers (of the type Num.num):
# let rec fact n = if n =/ zero then one else n */ fact(n -/ one);; val fact : Num.num -> Num.num =
This function can compute much larger factorials, such as 120!:
# string_of_num (fact (num_of_int 120));; - : string = 6689502913449127057588118054090372586752746333138029810295671352301633 55724496298936687416527198498130815763789321409055253440858940812185989 8481114389650005964960521256960000000000000000000000000000
==Numerical derivative (higher-order functions)==
As a functional programming language, it is easy to create and pass around functions in OCaml programs. This capability has an enormous number of applications. Calculating the numerical derivative of a function is one such application. The following OCaml function d computes the numerical derivative of a given function f at a given point x :
# let d delta f x = (f (x +. delta) -. f (x -. delta)) /. (2. *. delta);; val d : float -> (float -> float) -> float -> float =
This function requires a small value delta . A good choice for delta is the square root of the machine epsilon.
The type of the function d indicates that it maps a float onto another function with the type (float -> float) -> float -> float . This allows us to partially apply arguments. This functional style is known as currying. In this case, it is useful to partially apply the first argument delta to d , to obtain a more specialised function:
# let d = d (sqrt epsilon_float);; val d : (float -> float) -> float -> float =
Note that the inferred type indicates that the replacement d is expecting a function with the type float -> float as its first argument. We can compute a numerical approximation to the derivative of x^3-x-1 at x=3 with:
# d (fun x -> x *. x *. x -. x -. 1.) 3.;; - : float = 26.
The correct answer is f (x) = 3x^2-1 => f (3) = 27-1 = 26.
The function d is called a higher-order function because it accepts another function ( f ) as an argument.
The concepts of curried and higher-order functions are clearly useful in mathematical programs. In fact, these concepts are equally applicable to most other forms of programming and can be used to factor code much more aggresively, resulting in shorter programs and fewer bugs.
==Discrete Wavelet Transform (pattern matching)==
The 1D Haar wavelet Discrete wavelet transform of an integer-power-of-two-length list of numbers can be implemented very succinctly in OCaml and is an excellent example of the use of pattern matching over lists, taking pairs of elements ( h1 and h2 ) off the front and storing their sums and differences on the lists s and d , respectively:
# let haar l = let rec aux l s d = match l, s, d with [s], [], d -> s :: d | [], s, d -> aux s [] d | h1 :: h2 :: t, s, d -> aux t (h1 + h2 :: s) (h1 - h2 :: d) | _ -> invalid_arg haar in aux l [] [];; val haar : int list -> int list =
For example:
# haar [1; 2; 3; 4; -4; -3; -2; -1];; - : int list = [0; 20; 4; 4; -1; -1; -1; -1]
Pattern matching is an incredibly useful construct that allows complicated transformations to be represented clearly and succintly. Moreover, the OCaml compiler turns pattern matches into very efficient code, resulting in programs that are not only much shorter but also much faster.
==Triangle (graphics)==
The following program simple.ml renders a rotating triangle in 2D using OpenGL:
let _ = Glut.initDisplayMode ~double_buffer:true (); ignore (Glut.createWindow ~title: OpenGL Demo ); let render () = GlClear.clear [ `color ]; GlMat.rotate ~angle:(Sys.time() *. 0.01) ~z:1. (); GlDraw.begins `triangles; List.iter GlDraw.vertex2 [-1., -1.; 0., 1.; 1., -1.]; GlDraw.ends (); Glut.swapBuffers () in Glut.displayFunc ~cb:render; Glut.idleFunc ~cb:(Some Glut.postRedisplay); Glut.mainLoop ()
The LablGL bindings to OpenGL are required. The program may then be compiled to bytecode with:
$ ocamlc -I +lablgl unix.cma lablglut.cma lablgl.cma simple.ml -o simple
and run:
$ ./simple
Far more sophisticated, high-performance 2D and 3D graphical programs are easily developed in OCaml. Thanks to the use of OpenGL, the resulting programs are not only succinct and efficient but also cross-platform, compiling without any changes on all major platforms.
==Programs written in OCaml==
Commonly used:
Fun:
Education:
Engineering:
=See also=
=External links =
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